With support of the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the University of Cincinnati Center for Police Research and Policy conducted a survey of 70 law enforcement agencies within large U.S. cities. This map, which was constructed in partnership with the Council of State Government Justice Center, shows the frequency of collaborative law enforcement-behavioral health interventions within those agencies. These initiatives aim to improve individual and community health outcomes, reduce unnecessary law enforcement contact for people with behavioral health needs or people experiencing homelessness, and protect public safety.
If you are interested in learning more about, or visiting agencies
that have these types of initiatives, please reach out to the Law
Enforcement-Mental Health Support Center by selecting the ‘Request Free
Support’ button on the center’s
website.
Agencies were provided the definition of
community responder programs as follows: Community Responder Programs
are mobile teams of behavioral health, disability, or social service
staff that respond alone or in partnership with medical professionals
(e.g., paramedics, nurses, EMTs) to behavioral health- and
disability-related 911 calls for service that do not directly involve
law enforcement. They may also respond to other types of calls (e.g.,
from 24-hour crisis lines, referrals from law enforcement). No other
program definitions were provided within the survey.
Below are additional definitions of the other types of response models that were included in the survey:
Crisis Intervention Team: A team of law enforcement officers who have received specialized training on how to identify people with mental health needs and respond to people who are experiencing behavioral health crises.
Co-Responder Team: Teams of police officers paired with mental health staff to respond to people who are experiencing behavioral health crises. The exact structure of these teams may vary including the type of calls they respond to; the types of mental health staff they deploy (e.g., peers, social workers); whether the officer and the clinician respond to scenes together, separately, or the clinician is available virtually; and more.
Pre-Booking Diversion: Programs that allow police officers to use their discretion at point of contact to divert people with behavioral health needs away from arrest and into community-based treatment and supports.
Homeless Outreach Team: A team of law enforcement officers, sometimes paired with behavioral health or housing service staff, who engage people experiencing homelessness and respond to homelessness-related calls for service in an effort to connect people to housing and other supports.
Case Management Services: Law-enforcement-based case management programs partner police and behavioral health professionals to identify and provide case management services to people with serious mental illnesses, other chronic behavioral health needs, or people experiencing homelessness who come into frequent contact with police and emergency services.
Veterans Response Team: A team of law enforcement officers who respond to scenes where people who are veterans are experiencing a behavioral health or related crisis. These teams are sometimes comprised of officers who are themselves veterans and they seek to link people to appropriate treatment and services.
Mobile Crisis Team: A mobile response that offers face-to-face emergency support in the community, typically made up of a group of trained health professionals who provide a range of services, including administering medication, connecting people to crisis care, and providing follow-up support.
EMS/Ambulance-Based Response Team: A team of medical professionals (e.g., paramedics, emergency medical technicians) who provide rapid responses to behavioral health crises, including administering immediate medical attention and linking people to appropriate behavioral health services. Law enforcement can provide support to such calls, as well as direct referrals.
Peer Response Team: Peers are individuals who have a behavioral health condition and may have had experience with the criminal justice system. Their lived experience helps them connect with, and relate to, other people who have experience with the mental health and criminal justice system. These teams of peers can provide a range of support from case management to peer counseling and more.
Frequent Utilizer Program: Identifies people who have frequent police contact and cycle in and out of jails and emergency departments often for minor charges and non-emergency health needs. These programs seek to connect people to services such as case management, coordinated care, and housing that disrupt this cycling and reduce future encounters with law enforcement.
Crisis Stabilization Units: Also known as crisis or drop-off centers, Crisis Stabilization Units provide immediate, short-term mental health care for people in behavioral health crises. They often support people who walk-in for treatment as well as received referrals or drop-offs from law enforcement. In this way, they can serve as alternative to use of emergency departments or arrest for law enforcement. The type of care they provide can vary but includes assessment, counseling, psychiatric care, case management, and referrals.
Other Police-Led Programs: Programs not listed above that use specialized law enforcement initiatives to respond to people in crisis.
Other Community Responder Programs: Programs not listed above that use models that position health professionals and community members trained in crisis response as first responders.
From August to November 2021, the
University
of Cincinnati Center for Police Research and Policy surveyed the 70
largest U.S. municipal law enforcement agencies. Of these 70 agencies,
54 (77%) completed a survey on crisis response. The survey measures the
prevalence and nature of police training, partnerships, and programs to
support crisis response, including innovative practices in responses to
people with behavioral health conditions (including mental health and
substance use) and intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD).
One limitation of these data is that if a survey respondent was unaware
of a particular program operating in their jurisdiction it could lead to
the under reporting of crisis response models.
Agencies were
provided the definition of community responder programs as follows:
Community Responder Programs are mobile teams of behavioral health,
disability, or social service staff that respond alone or in partnership
with medical professionals (e.g., paramedics, nurses, EMTs) to
behavioral health- and disability-related 911 calls for service that do
not directly involve law enforcement. They may also respond to other
types of calls (e.g., from 24-hour crisis lines, referrals from law
enforcement). No other program definitions were provided within the
survey.
If you have questions, would like more information, are
aware of an initiative that is missing, or have other corrections to
suggest, please reach out to LEsupport@csg.org
If you are interested in improving how your law
enforcement agency responds to people with behavioral health needs,
intellectual and developmental disabilities, or people experiencing
homelessness then here are some resources that can help you in your
efforts: